Aztecs! essays

Aztecs! essays The Aztec Indians, who are known for their domination of southern and central Mexico, ruled between the 14th and 16th centuries. Their name is derived from Azatlan, the homeland of the north. The Aztecs also call themselves Mexica and there language came from the Nahuatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Aztecs were formed after the Toltec civilization occurred when hundreds of civilians came towards Lake texcoco. Late families were unfortunate and were forced to go to the swamp lands. In the swamp lands there was only one piece of land to farm on and it was totally surrounded by more marshes . The Aztec families some how converted these disadvantages to a might empire known as they Aztec Empire. People say the empire was partially formed by a deeply believed legend. As the the legend went it said that Aztec people would create a empire on in a swampy place where they would see an eagle eating a snake while perched on a cactus which is growing out of a rock in the swamplands. This is what priests claimed they saw while entering the new land. By the year 1325 Their capital city was finished. They called it Tenochtitlan. In the the capital city aqueducts (piping) were constructed, bridges were built, and chinapas were made. Chinapas were little islands formed by pilled up mud. On these chinapas Aztecs grew corn, beans, chili peppers, squash, tomatoes, and tobacco. Tenochtitlan (the capital city) was covered in giant religious statues in order to pay their respects to the gods. In the Aztec religion numerous gods controlled an Aztecs daily life. Some of these gods include: Uitzilpochtli (the sun god), Coyolxauhqui (the moon goddess), Tlaloc (the rain god), and Quetzalcoatl (the inventor of the calendar and writing). Another part of the Aztec religion was human sacrifices. For their sacrifices the priest would lay the man or woman over a convex (rounded) stone, then he would take a sharp knife and cut the victims heart out ...

The eNotes Blog A Day in the Life of a StudentResearcher

A Day in the Life of a StudentResearcher Are you studying for a career in the sciences? Not sure where to begin to gather that lab experience that is oh so important for obtaining your degree and landing a great job? Our Math and Science intern Wilson shares his experiences of finding his place as a student researcher and shares the four lessons hes learnt both inside and outside of the lab. Lab work doesnt always involve looking down the lens of a microscope, one thing I learnt in my work as a student researcher studying autism spectrum disorders in children. For almost 2 years now, I have been a student researcher at UCLA studying the physiology of anxiety in youth with autism spectrum disorders. This position has opened my eyes up to the professional, research-oriented community and taught me to dismiss some of the common misconceptions I had before I received this opportunity. Here are a few things I learned on my way to becoming a student researcher. The application process is not  that  difficult.  Where do I begin to look? This is common problem that many people have, and I had as well. Do I just search online for labs? How do I know if they are looking for student researchers? The answer is a lot easier and more straight-forward than one would think. The most common method for an undergraduate is to use the university website and find their page of open research positions. In a way, finding a research position is a lot like finding a job position, except your chances of success are much higher. Many professors and graduate students at universities are constantly looking for enthused students to help out at their lab, so the list of open positions is almost limitless and is constantly being updated.Heres another effective method: just look up the department that you want to research for and email all the professors in that department asking if they have any room on their team for a student researcher. From my experience ( I applied using both methods), they will usually respond within a day, and more often than not, one of them will welcome you to their lab. Perhaps the hardest part of this relatively simple process is being able to effectively convey your interest and enthusiasm for their field of study. Needless to say though, the resources are all right there. There’s no need to dig around. Theres no need to feel intimidated. Although they may seem intimidating at first, at the end of the day, scientists are just ordinary people. When an interview was set in date for my position, I felt very nervous. One reason was because I only just finished my first year and felt as if I knew nothing about lab work or any of the more in-depth concepts of the human body. A second was because I didn’t want to be rejected, meaning I had to put on a best first impression for a figure of authority, an actual scientist who is so much more knowledgeable than I am. At the interview, I was expecting them to test me on the basic techniques of lab and the concepts of autism. I got very little sleep the night before because I was so busy studying up for this test that I thought was going to happen; however, there was no test. The scientist, or principal investigator (PI) of my lab, was very friendly and happy that I would be able to help out. They happily explained to me the paradigm of t he study and what would be expected out of me. Most scientists, who are recruiting undergraduate students, understand that we may not have the most experience and exposure to research and laboratory procedures so they are very willing to educate and train us for whatever work we may be doing. Not all scientists wear long, white lab coats and nerdy-looking goggles.  My earliest impression of what a scientist wears comes from the show, â€Å"Dexter’s Laboratory.† Long, white lab coats and nerdy-looking goggles. At the very least, I’d thought we would be wearing professional attire, which is what I showed up in at our first group meeting, but soon learned that it was all very casual. If we weren’t dealing with the subjects (children with autism) and their family that day, almost anything goes. Most of us often wear t-shirts and jeans in the lab (I wear shorts because I can’t stand the feel of pants). Test tubes, chemicals, and microscopes are not necessarily the essentials in every research lab.  What?! No chemicals?! Not test tubes?! No microscopes?! What kind of lab is this? I had always thought that research consisted of mixing chemicals together or staring into a microscope, looking at cells, but not all labs involve working with dangerous chemicals or biohazards, which is why casual clothing is appropriate for our lab instead of personal protective equipment (PPE) like lab coats and goggles. Our research study involves a startle (have the subject experience several different situations that might cause anxiety, such as having a sudden puff of air blown near the face or being read a scary story), collection of salivary cortisol (a hormone that is released during states of anxiety), and surveys. As a student researcher, I get to assist during the startle with the subject (a child ages 7-14), such as attaching electrodes onto their skin to detect muscle contraction, monitorin g their reaction through a camera, and running them through one of the nature reserve paradigms to observe their reaction to negative information. The interactions we have with the children and families at these startles are incredibly enlightening and inspirational, providing a sense of purpose in what we do and in all the hours we put forth to better understand this disorder. Outside of the laboratory, my responsibilities include entering data, analyzing electromyograms to validate each trial of the startle, or leading discussions regarding recent research findings on autism. Although less technical than a laboratory that requires the mixing of chemicals or analysis of biomolecular substances, this position has exposed me to how research in the â€Å"real world† is conducted, the process of applying for funding, and all the precautions and rules that a scientist must follow in dealing with human subjects. My position as  a student researcher at UCLA studying the physiology of anxiety in youth with autism spectrum disorders gave me a different look into the realm of scientific research. Although it may not be an ideal research position for a biochemist, such as myself, I am enjoying the role that I play in helping this team progress and reach our goal of better physiological understanding of this disorder so that a more valid diagnosis may be available. This just goes to show that there are lots of meaningful research opportunities out there for all different types of fields, whether it be in the applied sciences, arts, life sciences, social sciences, or engineering. So if you are currently an undergraduate or about to become one, take full use of your available resources, experience what it’s like to actually work in your field, and have fun doing it.

Critical Assessment of Global Crisis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Critical Assessment of Global Crisis - Essay Example It has been argued that the major basis of the financial crisis was the loose of monetary policy in the early 2000s also known as the â€Å"Greenspan put.† Fed and central bank lowered short-run interest rates to rescue financial markets. There are several key dates indicating the phases of the global financial crisis. Originating from the US, initial signs of financial crisis originated from escalating defaults in the subprime market. The subprime market refers to the marketplace for borrowers who have excessive debt experience, high default rates and the borrowers with recorded bankruptcies and who have a history of missed payments. On the summer of May 2007, Moody’s a credit agency reported that it had planned to reduce creditworthiness assessment of 62 tranches of mortgaged-based securities (MBS), that is, the debt obligations representing a claim on income obtained from mortgage loans. Between June and July of the same year, more tranches were downgraded. In August 2007, French Bank BNP halted three of its funds on a temporary basis because it was unable to assess the value of subprime mortgage securitizations. In short, financial institutions across the world begin to the reassessing the value of the mortgage recognized against their lending. This led to loss of trust and the confidence in these mortgages to tremble. Most institution cast doubts on securitized assets evaluation has they begin to hoard huge amounts of cash assets so as to cover any arising losses originating from their portfolios. The securitization market went under stress leading to a sharp increase in interest rates.

Economic Reform of China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Economic Reform of China - Essay Example This leads to economic growth of 10% annually. By adopting a mixed economy China is leading successfully. The Government of china has retain strong control over investments and allowed a limited private competition. This results in removing the deficiencies of capitalism and communism. Those countries which follow free trade and non liberal path, dominates the economy like China. The China's success proof is its GDP statistics. Since 1978, the GDP has been double digits. However this progress has lead to number of challenges China is facing nowadays. These are financial crisis world wide, incompetent banking system, over reliance on exports, inflationary pressures, widening income inequalities etc. In order to create a harmonious society, China Government has to over come these issues. Furthermore trade and foreign investment plays a dramatic role in this revolution. The trade of goods has double so far. Large trade surplus, direct flow of foreign investments and heavy purchases of foreign currency makes China the biggest foreign currency reservoir holder. Two factors contributed tremendously to the growth of economy in China. One is Heavy Capital investment either by domestic savings or by foreign investments. And second factor is quick yield growth. This revolution leads higher effectiveness which improves the output. The result is increased resources for extra investments in the economy. Moreover China has a higher rate of saving, as most Chinese has saved a lot by producing profit from State owned enterprises. As a result savings as percentage to GDP has raised tremendously upto 50% which is highest rate in the world. Another factor which plays a major role in this revolution in China is Productivity gains. The enhancement in output is because of allocation of resources to the productive uses specially trade, services and agriculture sectors. The government authorities were allowed to establish various enterprises on market rules. Direct Foreign Investments with its new technologies boosted the economy as well. DIRECT FOREIGN INVESTMENTS IN CHINA: The major factor for China's economic growth is Direct Foreign Investments. China's FDI usage has expanded from $636 million to $75 billion by the end of 2007.Manufacturing is the major part of the economy where larger portion of FDI are utilized. Almost 55% of total FDI is consumed up for manufacturing which leads 610,000 companies to flourish and almost 28 million people will be engaged by these firms. CHINA TRADE PATTERNS: China becomes the trading power in result of economic revolution. Chinese exports were $1218 billion by the end of 2007 and its imports were $956 billions. China has grown dramatically during past years with average annual growth rate is 29%. Imports over this

Facial Expression Categorization by Chimpanzees Using Standardized Essay

Facial Expression Categorization by Chimpanzees Using Standardized Stimuli - Essay Example Four experiments were conducted onchimpanzees using a set of standardized, prototypical stimuli created using the newChimpFACS coding system. 1) The first experiment was to determine whether chimpanzees could discriminate the3D facial expression figures in a MOT (matching-to-sample). It was a reproduction ofthe study by study by Parr, Hopkins, et al. (1998) Procedure: Data were collected on experimenting 6 male and female chimpanzees aged11 years and above. They were tested in their home cage. The computer placed in anaudio visual cart was positioned about 30 cms from the cage and the eye of each animalwas about 40 cms from the computer. A joystick was attached protruding 4 cms into themesh. The experiments conducted were: 1) Initial Discrimination of Poser Stimuli 2)Inversion Effect for Facial expression 3) Examining Perceived Dissimilarity usingMultidimensional Scaling 4) Discriminating Facial Expressions using ComponentMovement. Experiment 1:The aim of this initial experiment was to verify whetherthe Poser facial expression stimuli were prominent for the subjects, and whether it couldbe discriminated at high levels of skill and that expressions were dealt with no evidentparent stimulus biases. The analysis showed that 'scream' was the most salientexpression to single out. In fact the subjects reached the final testing criteria for screamsin minimum time. Experiment 2:Experiment 2 revealed a significant inversion effect suggesting a generalconfigural processing strategy for all expressions. Experiment 3:Subjects' pattern of error when differentiating all expressions. Apart from screams and pant-hoots showed much difference based on the identity of thefoil expression. They share the majority of their individual component movements, suchas the bared-teeth display, the presence of these similarities did little to confuseperformance. The MDS analysis provides a statistical interpretation of howexpressions were categorized based on their perceived dissimilarity. Experiment 4:The results showed that for each facial expression, at least one component movement wasseen to

Are Criminals Born Or Made At Birth Criminology Essay

Are Criminals Born Or Made At Birth Criminology Essay What causes or contributes to criminal behaviour within an individual is very difficult to explain because there are many different theories around this issue. Some scientist such as Cesare Lombroso which begun Scientific Criminology believed that individuals are biologically predisposed to criminal behaviour (Male Crime and Deviance pg.5).Later others followed such as Ernest Hooten and William Sheldon which differentiated criminals from non criminals from certain feature such as mixed coloured eyes or reddish hair.( Male Crime and Deviance pg.6). Although these theories where discredited because of prejudices and methodological weakness it led the way to other forms of theories such as the heredity -Genetic theory , the XYY Chromosome theory, and brain and neurological dysfunction theories . Other researchers do not believe that criminal behaviour is derived biologically, they believe that things like a persons cultural surrounds, their genes and their environment predisposes them t o criminal behaviour. As a result criminals, these researchers strive to prove that individuals are a product of their environment and surroundings. Therefore the main purpose of this essay is to draw from certain theories to assist in explaining the fact that individuals are biologically predisposed to criminal behaviour. The thought that individuals were born criminals originated in nineteenth century Italy, with Italian physician Cesare Lombrosos book entitled LUomo Delinquente. Throughout his book he discussed scientific criminology which was influenced by Charles Darwins theory of evolution (Male Crime and Deviance pg.5). Lombroso proposed that some people were biologically predisposed to criminal behaviour or born to commit crime, he also believed that criminals were products of atavism or biological throwbacks to earlier genetic forms (Male Crime and Deviance pg.5). Concept of Atavism Lombrosos general theory suggested that criminals are distinguished from noncriminals by multiple physical anomalies (CBS Interactive Inc 2010).For his examination he used Italian prisoners and army personnel. He advanced that criminals and noncriminal could be differentiated by physical stigmata-such as large lips, flat nose, and certain shapes of the skull-as well as such preferences as tattoos or involvement in orgies (Male Crime and Deviance pg 6). Although his theory was later rejected it led to different physicians such as Ernest Hooten who began to expand on Lombrosos scientific criminology theory. He attempted to explain male criminality by using body type theories in his 1939 book entitled Crime and the Man. Which explained that criminals could be indentified by mixed eye colour, reddish hair also that tall heavy men were most likely murders (Male Crime and Deviance pg.6)? William Sheldon soon followed in 1940 when he systematically showed a correlation between body type and juvenile delinquency (Male Crime and Deviance pg. 6). He describes three body types which were endomorphics, ectomorphics and mesomorphics, which each related to a certain personality or temperance trait. Mesomorphics were characterized as muscular, hard, assertive, aggressive, and active. These types were believed to be the most likely to participate in crime (Male Crime and Deviance pg. 6). Although all of thes e theories were later rejected because of methodological weaknesses they opened the door to many other theories regarding biological criminality Theories such as the heredity -Genetic Theory, the XYY Chromosome theory and also Hyperactivity and Antisocial behaviour theory support the fact that individuals are biologically predisposed to crime. They also differentiate from past theories because they are scientifically based rather than bias and racist. For example the heredity genetic theory supported by biological theorists such as Richard Dugdale and Henry Goddard explain that male crime and abnormal behaviour are due to the genetic transmissions of certain mental or physical characteristics from generation to generation (Male Crime and Deviance pg.6). While other researchers found that certain biological characteristics such as low birth weight and other prenatal problems predispose some children to delinquency and criminality. Therefore making it clear in this theory that some i ndividuals have certain biological characteristic that make them immune to criminal behaviour. The XXY chromosome theory is different from the heredity -Genetic theory, but it also supports the fact that criminals are born and not made. Researchers have discovered a genetic abnormality in some males, where as the normal chromosome count for a male is XY some males had an extra Y (XYY) which was found to be associated with aggressive and violent behaviour (Male Crime and Deviance pg. 9) Among many other theories there is also the brain and neurological dysfunction and their effects in behaviour. Some research has found abnormal electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings of brain activity in criminals and delinquents, associating it with violent and aggressive behaviour, destructiveness, limited impulse control, and weak social adaptations. (Male Crime and Deviance pg.11)Also persons diagnosed with ADHD have been found to be at risk for a number of deviances and abnormal conditions including delinquency, criminality, feelings of worthlessness, psychiatric morbidity, unemployment, fam ily dysfunction, and suicide (Male Crime and Deviance pg. 11).Among many other theories these help explain alternative roots of the problem involving criminals. While there are many theories that support the fact that individuals are born into criminal behaviour, others do not believe that this is a valid answer .Therefore contribute criminal behaviour to other factors such as sociological, genetics and biological theories. In terms of sociological theories there are many different theories, for example the social reaction theory which is also known as the Labelling Theory conducted by Howard S. Becker in 1963. It explained that when a person commits a crime they will receive the label of a criminal, and when a person is labelled as such by society they are likely to accept this label as part of them. Now that the person now thinks of themselves as a criminal they will continue their criminal behaviour (Zomba Inc 2010). Although this theory is a very good theory, it does not really hold up because unlike biological theories which discuss the root of the problem this theory does not . Reason being that the theory neglects the process of becom ing defiant in the first place, the act of primary defiance. It does not do a good job at describing the primary part of deviancy such as murder, which is often a primary example of classic defiance (Arasite 2010). Among many of those theories there is also the differential association theory which was supported by most criminologist and socialist, this theory states that crime like crime like other kinds of behaviour, is learned. The theory points out the general conditions under which there are likely to be more than less criminal behaviour learned and thus a greater likelihood that the person will acquire a set of definitions that are more favourable to criminal activities than noncriminal ones. Furthermore, the theory states that criminality is a social rather than antisocial activity (Male Crime and Deviance pg.27). Although this is an excellent theory which tried to explain criminal behaviour there are many shortcomings, one is its inability to be validated through empirical testing because of a lack of clarity in its definitions and terminology. Also it failed to explain the origin of crime and delinquency or outline the nature of the learning process Male Crime and Deviance pg.27). While some theorists focus on sociological theories to explain crime and criminals other focus on the genetics revolving around this issue. One example of this is the Testosterone and Male Offending theory. Much of the research has found a positive correlation between high levels of testosterone, male violence, and aggressive behaviour. Early studies focused on testosterone in prisoners. L. E. Kreuz and R. M. Rose found that levels of testosterone were significantly higher in offenders with a history of violent behaviour than offenders whose histories were nonviolent (Male Crime and Deviance pg. 10). Although this is a fine theory it failed to find a concrete correlation between testosterone and criminality. There is also the Machismo and Males theory which is an important concept in masculinity and its relationship to male violent and aggressive behaviour. Machismo has been particularly associated with the criminality of Latino men. Many experts attribute their victimization and sexual abuse or the macho male, suggesting that violence against women is more likely to be a product of machismo-oriented cultures than cultures that favour more equality of the sexes (Male Crime and Deviance 34).therefore Machismo appears to be rooted in Hispanic communities sense of family and cultural isolation. Although some believe that criminals are manufactured by genetics and society, others believe that criminals are a product of their environment which includes such things as poverty, education, parenting practises and family structure. Many studies have been conducted that believe that the percentage of poor Americans who are living in extreme poverty has reached a 32-year high (Christian Association for Prison Aftercare 2010). This is defined as individuals living at half of the federal poverty line. Sociologist and criminal justice scholars have found a direct correlation between poverty and crime. Therefore it is believed that individuals resort to crime only if the cost or consequences are outweighed by the potential benefits to be gained.  Ã‚   The logical conclusion to this theory is that people living in poverty are far more likely to commit property crimes such as burglary, larceny, or theft (Christian Association for Prison Aftercare 2010). Although this theory may be true it does not relate to everybody, therefore there are many short comings, and much controversy among this theory. While some scholars believe this theory to be true others believe that poverty does not have a causal relationship to crime because there are countries in which poverty is very high but the crime rate is relatively low (Christian Association for Prison Aftercare 2010). There are many other theories among them is the child abuse and neglect theory, which is the relationship between child abuse, neglect, delinquent and serious or violent criminal behaviour has been strongly documented on the literature. The act of being violated gives these vulnerable young people a street-ready repertoire of violence; they know how to kick because they have been kicked, they know how to stab because they have been stabbed, they know how to torment and humiliate because they have experienced the same (Telegraph Newspaper 2008). For example Brandt Steele cited research in which more than 80 percent of the juvenile offenders had a history of being abused, with 43 percent recalling being knocked unconscious by a parent. Martin Haskell and Lewis Yablonsky held that juvenile detention facilities are filled with offenders who were victims of child abuse. Similarly, self report data on prisoners indicate a high percentage had been physically or sexually abused during childh ood (Male Crime and Deviance pg.42). In spite of this persuasive associated between child abuse and deviant behaviour, not all researcher agree that the two are necessarily interrelated (Male Crime and Deviance pg.42). Factor or reasons for delinquency and crimes are often very difficult to explain because there are many different theories and concepts around this issue that each takes a different stand. Some scientist such as Cesare Lombroso believed that some people are biologically predisposed to criminal behaviour (Male Crime and Deviance pg.5). His theory although filled with weakness gave the ground for other theorist to follow but also put their own spin on it such as Ernest Hooten and William Sheldon. Although these theories where discredited because of prejudices and methodological weakness it lead the way to other forms of theories such as the heredity -Genetic theory , the XYY Chromosome theory, and brain and neurological dysfunction theories . Although these theories may be very convincing other researchers did not believe that criminal behaviour was derived biologically. They believed that things like a persons cultural surroundings, their genes and their environment predisposes them t o criminal behaviour. Therefore the main purpose of this essay was to draw from certain theories to assist in explaining the fact that individuals were biologically predisposed to criminal behaviour

An International comparison of funding and expenditures for education :: essays research papers

An international comparison of funding & expenditures for education (Canada, France, Japan, united states) I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A Comparison of Educational Systems: A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Curriculum B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Duration of teacher training and certification programs C.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Existence of entrance/exit exams D.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ethic homogeneity (90% of entire population from one ethnic group) E.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Age for starting school F.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Average days in a school year G.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Average minutes of instruction in a school day H.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Student achievement I.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pupil/teacher ratios J.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Percent of schools with one or more problems II.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Where does the $ Come From? III.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Where does the $ Go? Duration of teacher training and certification programs Country  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Length of training (years)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Academic Program Canada  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4 (A gradual move is being made  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  General education at the university   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  towards 5 years of teacher   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  and 1-year of professional training   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  preparation)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  and instruction in curriculum and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  teaching classes in contextual   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  dimensions. France  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Primary: 4  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Primary: First three year spent in a license   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secondary: 5 or more  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Program on any subject; then one year   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Is spent on curriculum training. Secondary: first four years spent obtaining a degree in the subject to be taught; then 1-year teacher training on curriculum/instruction Japan  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First class elementary and lower  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First class elementary and lower secondary   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secondary certificate: 4  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  teachers earn a Bachelor’s degree focusing   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First class upper secondary: 6  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  on general subjects and pedagogy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Second class elementary and  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First class upper secondary: Bachelor’s   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lower secondary certificate: 2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  degree with less focus on pedagogy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Second class upper secondary: 4  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Plus 2 additional years of training on   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Curriculum and instruction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Second class elementary and lower   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secondary, Second class upper secondary:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Four years of general studies United States  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Particular emphases are shaped by   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Regulations, but usually include general   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Concentration in the academic subjects   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Teachers plan to teach (if they are in   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Secondary instruction) and in pedagogy Existence of Exit/Entrance Exams Country  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Existence of exit/entrance exams  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Name and type of examination Canada  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Yes  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Exit exams from secondary   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  School in some provinces. France  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Yes  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a) Baccalaureat – Exit   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Examination from lycee   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (academic high schools) and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  university entrance exams. b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Brevet des college: non- Compulsory exam at the end Of lower secondary school Japan  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Yes  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a) Entrance examination for   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Upper secondary school; b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Test of the National Center For University Entrance Exam (TNCUEE); and c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Entrance exams for Individual universities United States  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Yes  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  SAT/ACT – University entrance   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Examinations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Minimum competence tests in   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some states. Other Characteristics Ethnic Homogeneity (90% of entire population from one ethnic group):   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Canada – No  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  France – Yes  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  United States – No  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Japan – Yes  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Average age for starting school:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Canada – 6  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  France – 6   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  United States – 6  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Japan – 6 Age of compulsory education:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Canada – 6 – 16  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  France – 6 – 16